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William E. Cross Jr. (1940 - December 5, 2024) was a theorist and researcher in the field of ethnic identity development, specifically Black identity development. [1] He is best known for his nigrescence model, first detailed in a 1971 publication, and his book, Shades of Black, published in 1991.
[7] [41] William Cross proposed a prominent model of Black racial identity called the Nigrescence theory. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] Lastly, the reconstructionist approach examines the ways in which racism influences interactions between Black and White people. [ 7 ]
Nigrescence is a word with a Latin origin. It describes a process of becoming Black or developing a racial identity. It describes a process of becoming Black or developing a racial identity. Nigrescence extends through history and impacts those victimized by racism and white supremacy .
Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (1974) is a book by the economists Robert Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman.Fogel and Engerman argued that slavery was an economically rational institution and that the economic exploitation of slaves was not as catastrophic as presumed, because there were financial incentives for slaveholders to maintain a basic level of material support ...
The White Racial Identity Model was developed by an African American psychologist, Janet Helms in 1992. [3] It is a racial and ethnic identity model created specifically for people who identify as White. This theory, heavily influenced by William Cross, has become a widely referenced and studied theory on White racial identity development. [4]
Akbar's two major qualms with Cross’ theory, and the related papers by Parham and Helms, is that 1) the model fails to account for the view that the Black identity is the core context of the self, and 2) the model fails to account for the centrality of spirituality in conceptualization of the Black personality, a crucial element in the Afro ...
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Advanced Placement (AP) Economics (also known as AP Econ) refers to two College Board Advanced Placement Program courses and exams addressing various aspects of the field of economics: AP Macroeconomics