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Nootropics (/ n oʊ. ə ˈ t r oʊ p ɪ k s / noh-ə-TROHP-iks or / n oʊ. ə ˈ t r ɒ p ɪ k s / noh-ə-TROP-iks), [1] colloquially brain supplements, smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, are natural, semisynthetic or synthetic compounds which purportedly improve cognitive functions, such as executive functions, attention or memory.
The alpha-4 beta-2 nicotinic receptor, also known as the α4β2 receptor, is a type of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor implicated in learning, [1] consisting of α4 and β2 subunits. [2] It is located in the brain , where activation yields post- and presynaptic excitation , [ 2 ] mainly by increased Na + and K + permeability.
Layers of the Alimentary Canal.The wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The enteric nervous system in humans consists of some 500 million neurons [11] (including the various types of Dogiel cells), [1] [12] 0.5% of the number of neurons in the brain, five times as many as the one hundred million neurons in the human spinal ...
In 2016, a study found 70% of individuals in two families with a rare form of rapidly progressing multiple sclerosis had a mutation in NR1H3. [15] However, an analysis from The International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics Consortium using a 13-fold larger sample size could not find any evidence that the mutation in question (p.Arg415Gln) associated with multiple sclerosis, refuting these findings.
Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), also referred to as a hepatic panel or liver panel, are groups of blood tests that provide information about the state of a patient's liver. [1] These tests include prothrombin time (PT/INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), albumin , bilirubin (direct and indirect), and others.
To make the distinction, abnormal liver function tests and/or ultrasound suggesting liver disease are required, and ideally a liver biopsy. [ 4 ] [ 9 ] The symptoms of hepatic encephalopathy may also arise from other conditions, such as bleeding in the brain and seizures (both of which are more common in chronic liver disease).
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), or abrineurin, [5] is a protein [6] that, in humans, is encoded by the BDNF gene. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] BDNF is a member of the neurotrophin family of growth factors, which are related to the canonical nerve growth factor (NGF), a family which also includes NT-3 and NT-4 /NT-5.
alpha-1 (α 1) adrenergic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) associated with the G q heterotrimeric G protein. α 1-adrenergic receptors are subdivided into three highly homologous subtypes, i.e., α 1A-, α 1B-, and α 1D-adrenergic receptor subtypes.