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Females of species have the ability to reproduce asexually, without sperm from a male. The process is called parthenogenesis, from the Greek words for “virgin” and “birth.”
Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce asexually. [1] In vertebrates , the most common form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis , which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited.
[9] [10] [11] This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a number of animal species that naturally reproduce through sex, including fish, amphibians, and mice. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the bdelloid rotifers ), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis.
Even among fungi that reproduce both sexually and asexually, often only one method of reproduction can be observed at a specific point in time or under specific conditions. Additionally, fungi typically grow in mixed colonies and sporulate amongst each other. These facts have made it very difficult to link the various states of the same fungus.
Plant reproduction is the production of new offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes , resulting in offspring genetically different from either parent.
Algae can reproduce asexually, sexually, and vegetatively. [2] Vegetative methods of algal reproduction include sinple cell division, fission, fragmentation , splitting of colonial forms, hormogonia , vegetative bodies, formation of adventitious branches, tubers, and budding.
Some monocots can reproduce asexually without the need for seeds. Clonal propagation is the production or division of vegetative structures which develop into new individuals that are genetically identical to their progenitor. These vegetative structures can also form enlarged tubers that function as food storage.
When organisms reproduce asexually, as in single-celled organisms such as bacteria and other prokaryotes, [76] and parthenogenetic or apomictic multi-celled organisms. DNA barcoding and phylogenetics are commonly used in these cases. [77] [78] [79] The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses. [80] [81]