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2. Closed system - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_system

   In nonrelativistic classical mechanics, a closed system is a physical system that does not exchange any matter with its surroundings, and is not subject to any net force whose source is external to the system. [1] [2] A closed system in classical mechanics would be equivalent to an isolated system in thermodynamics. Closed systems are often ...

3. Closed system (control theory) - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_system_(control_theory)

   The terms closed system and open system have long been defined in the widely (and long before any sort of amplifier was invented) established subject of thermodynamics, in terms that have nothing to do with the concepts of feedback and feedforward. The terms 'feedforward' and 'feedback' arose first in the 1920s in the theory of amplifier design ...

4. Isolated system - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolated_system

   The concept of an isolated system can serve as a useful model approximating many real-world situations. It is an acceptable idealization used in constructing mathematical models of certain natural phenomena; e.g., the planets in the Solar System, and the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom are often treated as

5. Thermodynamic system - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_system

   Overall, in an isolated system, the internal energy is constant and the entropy can never decrease. A closed system's entropy can decrease e.g. when heat is extracted from the system. Isolated systems are not equivalent to closed systems. Closed systems cannot exchange matter with the surroundings, but can exchange energy.

6. Closure operator - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_operator

   Convex hull (red) of a polygon (yellow). The usual set closure from topology is a closure operator. Other examples include the linear span of a subset of a vector space, the convex hull or affine hull of a subset of a vector space or the lower semicontinuous hull ¯ of a function : {}, where is e.g. a normed space, defined implicitly ⁡ (¯) = ⁡ ¯, where ⁡ is the epigraph of a function .

7. List of unsolved problems in mathematics - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems...

   Many mathematical problems have been stated but not yet solved. These problems come from many areas of mathematics, such as theoretical physics, computer science, algebra, analysis, combinatorics, algebraic, differential, discrete and Euclidean geometries, graph theory, group theory, model theory, number theory, set theory, Ramsey theory, dynamical systems, and partial differential equations.

8. Experimental system - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_system

   In scientific research, an experimental system is the physical, technical and procedural basis for an experiment or series of experiments. Historian of science Hans-Jörg Rheinberger defines an experimental system as: "A basic unit of experimental activity combining local, technical, instrumental, institutional, social, and epistemic aspects."

9. Closure (mathematics) - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(mathematics)

   Conversely, if closed sets are given and every intersection of closed sets is closed, then one can define a closure operator C such that () is the intersection of the closed sets containing X. This equivalence remains true for partially ordered sets with the greatest-lower-bound property , if one replace "closed sets" by "closed elements" and ...