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Microbial inoculants, also known as soil inoculants or bioinoculants, are agricultural amendments that use beneficial rhizosphericic or endophytic microbes to promote plant health. Many of the microbes involved form symbiotic relationships with the target crops where both parties benefit ( mutualism ).
Every time an antimicrobial agent is used, it applies selection evolutionary pressure to microbial populations which can result in disruption to the normal microbiome as well as resistance to that agent, and even cross-resistance to other agents. Resistance can then spread to other microbes and to other host organisms.
Hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. [2] This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), and fungi (antifungal ...
The antibiotic resistance genes found on the plasmids confer resistance to most of the antibiotic classes used nowadays, for example, beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides. [ 10 ] It is very common for the resistance genes or entire resistance cassettes to be re-arranged on the same plasmid or be moved to a different plasmid or ...
Though microbial inoculants can be beneficial for crops, they are not widely used in industrial agriculture, as large-scale application techniques have yet to become economically viable. A notable exception is the use of rhizobial inoculants for legumes such as peas. Inoculation with PGPRs ensures efficient nitrogen fixation, and they have been ...
There are other classes of R genes, such as the extracellular LRR class of R genes; examples include rice Xa21D [12] for resistance against Xanthomonas and the cf genes of tomato that confer resistance against Cladosporium fulvum. The Pseudomonas tomato resistance gene (Pto) belongs to a class of its own. It encodes a Ser/Thr kinase but has no LRR.
However, whether resistance genes are detected does not always match the resistance profile seen with phenotypic method. [9] The tests are also expensive and require specifically trained personnel. [25] Polymerase chain reaction is a method of identifying genes related to antibiotic susceptibility. [26]