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Ultimate loss amounts are necessary for determining an insurance company's carried reserves. They are also useful for determining adequate insurance premiums, when loss experience is used as a rating factor [4] [5] [6] Loss development factors are used in all triangular methods of loss reserving, [7] such as the chain-ladder method.
The chain-ladder technique is only accurate when patterns of loss development in the past can be assumed to continue in the future. [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In contrast to other loss reserving methods such as the Bornhuetter–Ferguson method , it relies only on past experience to arrive at an incurred but not reported claims estimate.
In the second approach, reported (or paid) losses are first developed to ultimate using a chain-ladder approach and applying a loss development factor (LDF). Next, the chain-ladder ultimate is multiplied by an estimated percent reported. Finally, expected losses multiplied by an estimated percent unreported are added (as in the first approach).
The free space loss is easily calculated using Friis transmission equation which states that the loss is proportional to the square of the distance and the square of the frequency. Additionally losses are incurred in most radio links, including atmospheric attenuation by gases, rain, fog and clouds.
At a higher speed, the centrifugal force is higher. On the contrary, higher cant creates the higher centripetal force. The calculation for this assumes a constant train speed on a constant radius curve. When the speed of the train and the amount of cant are in balance (centrifugal matches centripetal), it is called equilibrium. This would make ...
Loss of load in an electrical grid is a term used to describe the situation when the available generation capacity is less than the system load. [1] Multiple probabilistic reliability indices for the generation systems are using loss of load in their definitions, with the more popular [2] being Loss of Load Probability (LOLP) that characterizes a probability of a loss of load occurring within ...
The Hardy Cross method is an application of continuity of flow and continuity of potential to iteratively solve for flows in a pipe network. [1] In the case of pipe flow, conservation of flow means that the flow in is equal to the flow out at each junction in the pipe.
The relationship between speed and tilt can be calculated mathematically. We start with the formula for a balancing centripetal force: θ is the angle by which the train is tilted due to the cant, r is the curve radius in meters, v is the speed in meters per second, and g is the standard gravity, approximately equal to 9.81 m/s²: