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Otoconia are crystals of calcium carbonate and make the otolithic membrane heavier than the structures and fluids surrounding it. [1] The otoconia are composite crystallites that overlie the macular sensory epithelium of the gravity receptors of most vertebrates and are required for optimal stimulus input of linear acceleration and gravity. [3]
Perilymph and endolymph have unique ionic compositions suited to their functions in regulating electrochemical impulses of hair cells necessary for hearing. The electric potential of endolymph is ~80-90 mV more positive than perilymph due to a higher concentration of potassium cations (K +) in endolymph and higher sodium (Na +) in perilymph. [4]
Endolymph is the fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear. The major cation in endolymph is potassium, with the values of sodium and potassium concentration in the endolymph being 0.91 mM and 154 mM, respectively. [1] It is also called Scarpa's fluid, after Antonio Scarpa. [2]
The tectoria membrane (TM) is one of two acellular membranes in the cochlea of the inner ear, the other being the basilar membrane (BM). "Tectorial" in anatomy means forming a cover. The TM is located above the spiral limbus and the spiral organ of Corti and extends along the longitudinal length of the cochlea parallel to the BM. Radially the ...
The inner ear comprises three specialized regions of the membranous labyrinth: the vestibular sacs – the utricle and saccule, and the semicircular canals, which are the vestibular organs, as well as the cochlear duct, which is involved in the special sense of hearing.
The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible auricle, the ear canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (also called the tympanic membrane). [2] [3] The auricle consists of the curving outer rim called the helix, the inner curved rim called the antihelix, and opens into the ear canal.
The sound waves enter the auditory canal, a deceptively simple tube. The ear canal amplifies sounds that are between 3 and 12 kHz. [1] The tympanic membrane, at the far end of the ear canal marks the beginning of the middle ear.
The single canal found in hagfish appears to be secondarily derived. Additionally, the vestibular systems of lampreys and hagfish differ from those found in other vertebrates in that the otolithic organs of lampreys and hagfish are not segmented like the utricle and saccule found in humans, but rather form one continuous structure referred to ...