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Prolactin (PRL), also known as lactotropin and mammotropin, is a protein best known for its role in enabling mammals to produce milk. It is influential in over 300 separate processes in various vertebrates, including humans. [5] Prolactin is secreted from the pituitary gland in response to eating, mating, estrogen treatment, ovulation and ...
During pregnancy, the production of prolactin by the mother increases steadily, starting at 6–8 weeks of gestation and continuing until the end of the pregnancy. [32] Prolactin levels in the human fetal circulation see a gradual increase from around 30 weeks of gestation until birth. [32] Prolactin is released into milk at amounts consistent ...
A prolactin cell (also known as a lactotropic cell, epsilon acidophil, lactotrope, lactotroph, mammatroph, mammotroph) is a cell in the anterior pituitary which produces prolactin (a peptide hormone) in response to hormonal signals including dopamine (which is inhibitory), thyrotropin-releasing hormone and estrogen (especially during pregnancy), which are stimulatory.
High levels of prolactin during pregnancy and breastfeeding also increase insulin resistance, increase growth factor levels (IGF-1) and modify lipid metabolism in preparation for breastfeeding. During lactation, prolactin is the main factor maintaining tight junctions of the ductal epithelium and regulating milk production through osmotic balance.
In addition to their role in lobuloalveolar growth, prolactin and hPL act to increase the size of the nipple-areolar complex during pregnancy. [42] By the end of the fourth month of pregnancy, at which time lobuloalveolar maturation is complete, the breasts are fully prepared for lactation and breastfeeding. [30]
High levels of progesterone, which are associated with pregnancy, inhibits prolactin and therefore lactation. [30] Prolactin increases during the initial stages of lactation and can be stimulated by estrogen but not progesterone. [30] Research, however, focuses on the role of prolactin for breastfeeding and less on other behaviors. [30]
During pregnancy, the level of prolactin rises to trigger the development of mammary tissue in the breast to prepare it for milk supply. [17] Yet, due to high levels of progesterone and oestrogen , which are female hormones released from the placenta , milk production is prohibited until the removal of the placenta after labour .
Progesterone causes many changes to the genitourinary system. A pregnant woman may experience an increase in the size of the kidneys and ureter due to the increase blood volume and vasculature. Later in pregnancy, the woman might develop physiological hydronephrosis and hydroureter, which are normal. [33]