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Unlike polynyas, which tend to occur, and remain, at a given location, leads are transient features that can form anywhere in an ice-covered ocean. [6] Moreover, while the origin of polynyas is linked with either warm air current circulation from the coastline or a warm water upwelling, the driving force behind lead formation is a state of stress, either wind- or current-induced, within the ...
A sample of lead solidified from the molten state. Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in a density [24] of 11.34 g/cm 3, which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm 3), copper (8.93 g/cm 3), and zinc (7.14 g/cm 3). [25]
Both brine and air volumes influence sea-ice density values, which are typically around 840–910 kg/m 3 for first-year ice. Sea-ice density is a significant source of errors in sea-ice thickness retrieval using radar and laser satellite altimetry, resulting in uncertainties of 0.3–0.4 m. [21]
Surface water is enriched in salt from sea ice formation and cooled due to being exposed to a cold atmosphere during winter, which increases the density of this water mass. Due to its increased density, it forms overflows down the Antarctic continental slope and continues north along the bottom. It is the densest water in the open ocean, and ...
Sea ice is a complex composite composed primarily of pure ice in various states of crystallization, but including air bubbles and pockets of brine.Understanding its growth processes is important for climate modellers and remote sensing specialists, since the composition and microstructural properties of the ice affect how it reflects or absorbs sunlight.
The World Health Organization (WHO) specifically notes that there is "no known safe blood lead concentration," and that even blood lead concentrations as low as 3.5 µg/dL (micrograms per ...
An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery. Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly.
The presence of ice over so much of the continents greatly modified patterns of atmospheric circulation. Winds near the glacial margins were strong and persistent because of the abundance of dense, cold air coming off the glacier fields.