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It is in this framework of Philippine hierarchical structure, class differences, religious justifications, and living in a globally developing nation that Filipino women struggle for respect. Compared to other parts of Southeast Asia, women in Philippine society have always enjoyed a greater share of legal equality. [58] [59] [60] [61]
This encouraged a return to traditional gender roles for men and women. Ghodsee comments on how for some men this included more strictly policing their wives' bodies than they had previously under the communist regime , and how also many women "seemed eager" to adopt such traditional gender roles . [ 48 ]
Women in lower castes, such as Dalits, realized that they had to fight a class battle, as well as a battle against sexism. [9] However, most women participating in the women's liberation movement in the 1970s were middle class or part of the upper caste, and were urban and educated. [10]
However, sex still influences how society perceives a certain gender. [9] Since culture is created though the communication among society, communication is essential to the formation of gender roles in culture and in the media. The attitudes and mentalities found in culture and in the media are generated and passed on through communication. [9]
The term "third gender" has also been used to describe the hijras of South Asia [9] who have gained legal identity, fa'afafine of Polynesia, and Balkan sworn virgins. [10] A culture recognizing a third gender does not in itself mean that they were valued by that culture and often is the result of explicit devaluation of women in that culture. [11]
Her works have been translated into more than eight languages and act as primary resources on gender studies in Asia. Her book is part of a research project for more than 100 universities. She is the author of Unarvum Uruvamum (Feeling and Form), the first of its kind in English from a member of the hijra community.
Scholarship on nationalism and gender explores the processes by which gender affects and is impacted by the development of nationalism.Sometimes referred to as "gendered nationalism," gender and nationalism describes the phenomena whereby conceptions of the state or nation, including notions of citizenship, sovereignty, or national identity contribute to or arise in relation to gender roles.
These roles can also be seen as fundamental occupational and spiritual callings, which are not as directly involved in designations such as male and female. [8] [9] In daily social life, the bissu, the calabai, and the calalai may enter the dwelling places and the villages of both men and women. [5]