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  2. Effective nuclear charge - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_nuclear_charge

    Nuclear charge is the electric charge of a nucleus of an atom, equal to the number of protons in the nucleus times the elementary charge. In contrast, the effective nuclear charge is the attractive positive charge of nuclear protons acting on valence electrons, which is always less than the total number of protons present in a nucleus due to ...

  3. Slater's rules - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slater's_rules

    Each electron is said to experience less than the actual nuclear charge, because of shielding or screening by the other electrons. For each electron in an atom, Slater's rules provide a value for the screening constant, denoted by s, S, or σ, which relates the effective and actual nuclear charges as

  4. Charge radius - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_radius

    The rms charge radius is a measure of the size of an atomic nucleus, particularly the proton distribution. The proton radius is about one femtometre = 10 −15 metre. It can be measured by the scattering of electrons by the nucleus. Relative changes in the mean squared nuclear charge distribution can be precisely measured with atomic spectroscopy.

  5. Nuclear binding energy - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy

    Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass–energy to a form of energy, which can remove some mass when the energy is removed, is consistent with the mass–energy equivalence formula: ΔE = Δm c 2, where ΔE = energy release, Δm = mass defect,

  6. Gyromagnetic ratio - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyromagnetic_ratio

    Protons, neutrons, and many nuclei carry nuclear spin, which gives rise to a gyromagnetic ratio as above. The ratio is conventionally written in terms of the proton mass and charge, even for neutrons and for other nuclei, for the sake of simplicity and consistency. The formula is:

  7. Bohr radius - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius

    This result can be generalized to other systems, such as positronium (an electron orbiting a positron) and muonium (an electron orbiting an anti-muon) by using the reduced mass of the system and considering the possible change in charge. Typically, Bohr model relations (radius, energy, etc.) can be easily modified for these exotic systems (up ...

  8. Ionization energy - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy

    As the nuclear charge of the nucleus increases across the period, the electrostatic attraction increases between electrons and protons, hence the atomic radius decreases, and the electron cloud comes closer to the nucleus [10] because the electrons, especially the outermost one, are held more tightly by the higher effective nuclear charge.

  9. Alpha decay - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay

    It has a charge of +2 e and a mass of 4 Da. For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234. While alpha particles have a charge +2 e, this is not usually shown because a nuclear equation describes a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms.