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For many students, the process of learning literacy and a new language simultaneously is simply an overwhelming task, so bilingual programs began as a way to help such students develop native language literacy first – research by Cummins, [53] a central researcher in the field, shows that skills such as literacy developed in a first language ...
For example, some models focus on providing education in both languages throughout a student's entire education while others gradually transition to education in only one language. [2] The ultimate goal of bilingual education is fluency and literacy in both languages through a variety of strategies such as translanguaging and recasting.
Overall, these findings suggest that teacher education programs should offer better training on language skills and effective strategies for teaching multilingual students. This way, teachers will have the right knowledge and tools to handle the challenges that come up in classrooms with students who speak different languages. [6]
The following is a non-exhaustive list of standardized tests that assess a person's language proficiency of a foreign/secondary language. Various types of such exams exist per many languages—some are organized at an international level even through national authoritative organizations, while others simply for specific limited business or study orientation.
There are challenges to developing high proficiency in two languages or balance in bilingual skills, especially for early immersion students. Children complete the development of their first language by the age 7, and L1 and L2 affect each other during language development. [29] High levels of bilingual proficiency are hard to achieve.
French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu views language, and more specifically multilingual skills, as a form of social and symbolic capital that follows speakers as they search for work and power both locally and transnationally. [3] Bourdieu's views have been highly influential in study of language and power.
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Historical examples include glosses in textual sources, which can provide notes in a different language from the source text; macaronic texts which mix together two or more languages with the expectation that the reader will understand both; the existence of separate sacred and vernacular languages (such as Church Latin vs. common forms of ...