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Tardive dyskinesia occurs as a result of long-term use of dopamine-receptor-blocking medications such as antipsychotics and metoclopramide. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] These medications are usually used for mental illness but may also be given for gastrointestinal or neurological problems. [ 1 ]
Since it is difficult to measure extrapyramidal symptoms, rating scales are commonly used to assess the severity of movement disorders. The Simpson-Angus Scale (SAS), Barnes Akathisia Rating Scale (BARS), Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS), and Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale (ESRS) are rating scales frequently used for such assessment and are not weighted for diagnostic purposes ...
Late stage – occurs after prolonged (months-years) treatment, symptoms persist even after dose is decreased [10] Tardive dyskinesia [10] [3] - includes involuntary and repetitive facial movements risk factors include age, race and gender [10] It is hypothesized that these effects are due to chronic blockade of the D 2 receptor [3]
Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as tardive dyskinesia, occurs after long-term treatment with an antipsychotic drug such as haloperidol (Haldol) or amoxapine (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue – including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.
This may explain why, for people with tardive dyskinesia, increasing the dose of the antipsychotic may temporarily improve symptoms. [5] The theory of dopamine supersensivity may also explain some occurrences of tardive dyskinesia called withdrawal-emergent dyskinesia, when antipsychotic medication is abruptly discontinued. [6]
The mainstay of treatment for schizophrenia is an antipsychotic medication. [5] ... Tardive dyskinesia, positive symptoms: Well tolerated: 4 DB-RPCTs: 157:
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