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A universal indicator is a pH indicator made of a solution of several compounds that exhibit various smooth colour changes over a wide range pH values to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. A universal indicator can be in paper form or present in a form of a solution. [1]
The measurement of pH can become difficult at extremely acidic or alkaline conditions, such as below pH 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol/dm 3 acid) or above pH 10.5 (above ca. 0.0003 mol/dm 3 alkaline). This is due to the breakdown of the Nernst equation in such conditions when using a glass electrode.
pK a1 = 3.13, pK a2 = 4.76, pK a3 = 6.40. A weak acid may be defined as an acid with pK a greater than about −2. An acid with pK a = −2 would be 99 % dissociated at pH 0, that is, in a 1 M HCl solution. Any acid with a pK a less than about −2 is said to be a strong acid. Strong acids are said to be fully dissociated.
For example, if the concentration of the conjugate base is 10 times greater than the concentration of the acid, their ratio is 10:1, and consequently the pH is pK a + 1 or pK b + 1. Conversely, if a 10-fold excess of the acid occurs with respect to the base, the ratio is 1:10 and the pH is pK a − 1 or pK b − 1.
Buffer capacity falls to 33% of the maximum value at pH = pK a ± 1, to 10% at pH = pK a ± 1.5 and to 1% at pH = pK a ± 2. For this reason the most useful range is approximately p K a ± 1. When choosing a buffer for use at a specific pH, it should have a p K a value as close as possible to that pH.
1.07 [9] Li(PH 2)(BEt 3) 2 [10] LiPH 2 (BH 3) 2 (THF) 2 [10] sodium dihydrogenphosphide NaPH 2 [3] Na 13 (PH 2)(O t Bu) 12 [3] tetraphosphanylsilane Si(PH 2) 4 [11] KPH 2 [3] Ca(PH 2) 2 •6NH 3 [4] Ca(PH 2) 2 •2NH 3 [4] Cp 2 (CO) 4 Cr 2 (μ-PH 2)(μ-H) [12] Cp 2 (CO) 4 Cr 2 (μ-PH 2) 2 [12] [(CO) 4 Cr(μ-PH 2)] 2: orthorhombic Cmca: a =12. ...
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The ocean contains a natural buffer system to maintain a pH between 8.1 and 8.3. [11] The oceans buffer system is known as the carbonate buffer system. [ 12 ] The carbonate buffer system is a series of reactions that uses carbonate as a buffer to convert C O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CO_{2}} } into bicarbonate . [ 12 ]
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