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  2. Nicolaus Copernicus - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus

    Copernicus's Toruń birthplace (ul. Kopernika 15, left).Together with no. 17 (right), it forms Muzeum Mikołaja Kopernika.Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the city of Toruń (Thorn), in the province of Royal Prussia, in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, [10] [11] to German-speaking parents.

  3. List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people...

    Excommunicated Catholics, however, are barred from receiving the Eucharist or from taking an active part in the liturgy (reading, bringing the offerings, etc.). [4] Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, with 5 separate excommunications from 3 different Popes, carries the distinction of publicly being the most excommunicated individual. In this list ...

  4. List of cardinals excommunicated by the Catholic Church

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cardinals...

    Excommunication—literally, the denial of communion—usually means that a person is barred from participating in the Sacraments or holding ecclesiastical office. Ne Romani (1311), promulgated by Pope Clement V during the Council of Vienne , extended suffrage in papal election to excommunicated cardinals in an attempt to limit schisms .

  5. List of excommunicable offences in the Catholic Church

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Excommunicable...

    Excommunication is an ecclesiastical penalty placed on a person to encourage the person to return to the communion of the church. An excommunicated person cannot receive any sacraments or exercise an office within the church until the excommunication is lifted by a valid authority in the church (usually a bishop). Previously, other penalties ...

  6. Galileo affair - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_affair

    Galileo began his telescopic observations in the later part of 1609, and by March 1610 was able to publish a small book, The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius), describing some of his discoveries: mountains on the Moon, lesser moons in orbit around Jupiter, and the resolution of what had been thought to be very cloudy masses in the sky (nebulae) into collections of stars too faint to see ...

  7. Excommunication in the Catholic Church - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excommunication_in_the...

    Excommunication is intended to invite the person to change behaviour or attitude, repent, and return to full communion. [1] It is not an "expiatory penalty" designed to make satisfaction for the wrong done, much less a "vindictive penalty" designed solely to punish. Excommunication, which is the gravest penalty of all, is always "medicinal". [2]

  8. Science and the Catholic Church - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_the_Catholic...

    During this period, the Church was also a major patron of engineering for the construction of elaborate cathedrals. Since the Renaissance, Catholic scientists have been credited as fathers of a diverse range of scientific fields: Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) pioneered heliocentrism, René Descartes (1596-1650) father of analytical geometry and co-founder of modern philosophy, Jean-Baptiste ...

  9. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_to_the_Grand...

    Christina was the daughter of Charles III of Lorraine and granddaughter of Catherine de' Medici.. Tiberio Titi – Portrait of Christine of Lorraine Medici, 1600 In 1611 Galileo was informed by a friend, Cigoli, that "ill-disposed men envious of your virtue and merits met [to discuss]... any means by which they could damage you."