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In English, gh historically represented [x] (the voiceless velar fricative, as in the Scottish Gaelic word loch), and still does in lough and certain other Hiberno-English words, especially proper nouns. In the dominant dialects of modern English, gh is almost always either silent or pronounced /f/ (see Ough).
The soft pronunciation of г occurs before any of the "softening" vowels е ё и ю я ь and the hard pronunciation occurs elsewhere. However, the letter ж functions as a "soft g" in the Romance sense, with alterations between г and ж common in the language (e.g. ложиться, "to lie (down)", past tense лёг; подруга ...
gh, pronounced / f / as in enough / ɪ ˈ n ʌ f / or tough / t ʌ f /; o, pronounced / ɪ / as in women / ˈ w ɪ m ɪ n /; ti, pronounced / ʃ / as in nation / ˈ n eɪ ʃ ən / or motion / ˈ m oʊ ʃ ən /. The key to the phenomenon is that the pronunciations of the constructed word's three parts are inconsistent with how they would ...
It is also occasionally pronounced [ə], such as in Edinburgh. When gh occurs at the beginning of a word, it is pronounced hard (/ɡ/) as in “ghost” and “ghetto". In a few words of Greek origin, the digraph gm is pronounced /m/, with the (g) being silent, such as in “phlegm”, “paradigm” and "diaphragm".
Conversely, gh is never pronounced /f/ in syllable onsets other than in inflected forms, and is almost never pronounced /ɡ/ in syllable codas (the proper name Pittsburgh is an exception). Some words contain silent letters , which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation.
The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules: Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to /ə/. e is silent before a broad vowel. i is silent before u, ú and after a vowel (except sometimes in ei, oi, ui ). io, oi, ui have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
In Northern Dutch, /ɣ/ appears immediately before voiced consonants and sometimes also between vowels, but not in the word-initial position. In the latter case, the sound is not voiced and differs from /x/ in length (/ɣ/ is longer) and in that it is produced a little bit further front (mediovelar, rather than postvelar) and lacks any trilling, so that vlaggen /ˈvlɑɣən/ 'flags' has a ...
The voiced velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound that is used in various spoken languages.It is not found in most varieties of Modern English but existed in Old English. [1]