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2. Topsoil - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topsoil

   Topsoil is composed of mineral particles and organic matter and usually extends to a depth of 5-10 inches (13–25 cm). Together these make a substrate capable of holding water and air which encourages biological activity. There are generally a high concentration of roots in topsoil since this is where plants obtain most of their vital nutrients.

3. Structural Soil - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_Soil

   Structural Soil is a medium that can be compacted to pavement design and installation requirements while permitting root growth. It is a mixture of gap-graded gravels (mostly made of crushed stone) and soil (mineral content and organic content). It provides an integrated, root penetrable, high strength pavement system that shifts design away ...

4. Soil fertility - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility

   Topsoil or horizon O is with sufficient soil organic matter for healthy soil structure and soil moisture retention; Soil pH in the range 5.5 to 7.0 (suitable for most plants but some prefer or tolerate more acid or alkaline conditions); Adequate concentrations of essential plant nutrients in plant-available forms;

5. Environmental impact of concrete - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of...

   The environmental impact of concrete, its manufacture, and its applications, are complex, driven in part by direct impacts of construction and infrastructure, as well as by CO 2 emissions; between 4-8% of total global CO 2 emissions come from concrete. [1] Many depend on circumstances.

6. Soil formation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_formation

   The soil production rate due to weathering is approximately 1/10 mm per year. [5] New soils can also deepen from dust deposition. Gradually soil is able to support higher forms of plants and animals, starting with pioneer species and proceeding along ecological succession to more complex plant and animal communities. [6]

7. Cut and fill - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut_and_fill

   A mass haul diagram where land and rock cuts are hauled to fills Fill construction in 1909 Cut and fill software: view from above. In earthmoving, cut and fill is the process of constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the amount of material from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments to minimize the amount of construction labor.