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The hierarchical structure entrenched during this period had enduring effects on societal dynamics, shaping power relations and perpetuating disparities based on racial heritage. Following the Spanish colonial rule, the American colonial period (1898–1946) introduced new dynamics of racial discrimination, influenced by American cultural hegemony.
The doctrine of "Separate but Equal" as a moral or legal pretext for segregation is decreed no longer enforceable by governments, and the process of true racial integration begins in schools throughout the region, a process that was not completed until about 1970. [11] [12]
Racial segregation is the separation of people into racial or other ethnic groups in daily life. Segregation can involve the spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races.
Anti-Filipino sentiment refers to the general dislike or hatred towards the Philippines, Filipinos or Filipino culture. This can come in the form of direct slurs or persecution, in the form of connoted microaggressions, or depictions of the Philippines or the Filipino people as being inferior in some form psychologically, culturally or physically.
On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously declared and established that racial segregation within schools was unconstitutional. [6] This was the final outcome of Brown v. Board of Education. Subsequently, Southern white political leaders sought to defy the decision.
Sandra Cason Hayden (October 31, 1937 – January 4, 2023) was an American radical student activist and civil rights worker in the 1960s. Recognized for her defense of direct action in the struggle against racial segregation, in 1960 she was an early recruit to Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
Anti-miscegenation laws have played a large role in defining racial identity and enforcing the racial hierarchy. The United States has many ethnic and racial groups, and interracial marriage is fairly common among most of them. Interracial marriages increased from 2% of married couples in 1970 to 7% in 2005 [33] [34] and 8.4% in 2010. [35]
The Philippines currently celebrates its Independence Day on June 12, the anniversary of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration of independence from Spain in 1898. The declaration was not recognised by the United States which, after defeating the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay in May that year, acquired the Philippine Islands via the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War.