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The first term in (3) on the right is the global mean of the exospheric temperature (of the order of 1000 K). The second term [with P 2 0 = 0.5(3 sin 2 (φ)−1)] represents the heat surplus at lower latitudes and a corresponding heat deficit at higher latitudes (Fig. 2a). A thermal wind system develops with the wind toward the poles in the ...
The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. [1] The temperature of the thermopause could range from nearly absolute zero to 987.547 °C (1,810 °F).
Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 18 kg (1.13494 × 10 19 lb), [36] about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea-level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the ...
The density falls off to below 10 4 e/cm 3 at night. The F 1 layer merges into the F 2 layer at night. Though fairly regular in its characteristics, it is not observable everywhere or on all days. The principal reflecting layer during the summer for paths of 2,000 to 3,500 km (1,200 to 2,200 miles) is the F 1 layer. However, this depends upon ...
Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations (and their reverse) that take place in the Earth's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate. . Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of classical thermodynamics, to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air, the formation of clouds, atmospheric convection, boundary layer meteorology, and ...
The ionosphere (/ aɪ ˈ ɒ n ə ˌ s f ɪər /) [1] [2] is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about 48 km (30 mi) to 965 km (600 mi) above sea level, [3] a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation.
The troposphere is the lowest of the four layers and extends from the surface of the Earth to about 11 km (6.8 mi) into the atmosphere, where the tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere stratosphere) is located. The width of the troposphere can vary depending on latitude: for example, the troposphere is thicker in the tropics (about 16 ...
Earth's tectonic evolution over time from a molten state at 4.5 Ga, [11] to a single-plate lithosphere, [24] to modern plate tectonics sometime between 3.2 Ga [25] and 1.0 Ga [26] Primordial heat energy comes from the potential energy released by collapsing a large amount of matter into a gravity well , and the kinetic energy of accreted matter.