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Then the product process ,, … with = is a test supermartingale, and hence also an e-process (note that we already used this construction in the example described under "e-values as bets" above: for fixed , the e-values , were not dependent on past-data, but by using = ˘ | depending on the past, they became dependent on past data).
A test statistic shares some of the same qualities of a descriptive statistic, and many statistics can be used as both test statistics and descriptive statistics. However, a test statistic is specifically intended for use in statistical testing, whereas the main quality of a descriptive statistic is that it is easily interpretable. Some ...
One method of surrogate data is to find a source with similar conditions or parameters, and use those data in modeling. [4] Another method is to focus on patterns of the underlying system, and to search for a similar pattern in related data sources (for example, patterns in other related species or environmental areas).
Also confidence coefficient. A number indicating the probability that the confidence interval (range) captures the true population mean. For example, a confidence interval with a 95% confidence level has a 95% chance of capturing the population mean. Technically, this means that, if the experiment were repeated many times, 95% of the CIs computed at this level would contain the true population ...
A PDF file is organized using ASCII characters, except for certain elements that may have binary content. The file starts with a header containing a magic number (as a readable string) and the version of the format, for example %PDF-1.7. The format is a subset of a COS ("Carousel" Object Structure) format. [24]
Since the probabilities must satisfy p 1 + ⋅⋅⋅ + p k = 1, it is natural to interpret E[X] as a weighted average of the x i values, with weights given by their probabilities p i. In the special case that all possible outcomes are equiprobable (that is, p 1 = ⋅⋅⋅ = p k), the weighted average is given by the standard average. In the ...
Most commonly the absolute percent errors are weighted by the actuals (e.g. in case of sales forecasting, errors are weighted by sales volume). [3] Effectively, this overcomes the 'infinite error' issue. [ 4 ]
The probability is sometimes written to distinguish it from other functions and measure P to avoid having to define "P is a probability" and () is short for ({: ()}), where is the event space, is a random variable that is a function of (i.e., it depends upon ), and is some outcome of interest within the domain specified by (say, a particular ...