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The sigma value at the scale reference is by definition 1: i.e., if surface-scaled, =. In a sigma coordinate system, if the sigma scale is divided equally, then at every point on the surface, each horizontal layer above that point has the same thickness in terms of sigma, although in terms of metres each next higher equal sigma-thickness layer ...
[28]: 322 At that time, mean global temperatures were about 2–4 °C (3.6–7.2 °F) warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. The global mean sea level was up to 25 metres (82 ft) higher than it is today. [29]: 323 The modern observed rise in temperature and CO 2 concentrations has been rapid. Even abrupt geophysical events in Earth's history ...
Average yearly temperature is 22.4 °C, ranging from an average minimum of 12.2 °C to a maximum of 29.9 °C. The average temperature range is 11.4 °C. [6] Variability throughout the year is small (standard deviation of 2.31 °C for the maximum monthly average and 4.11 °C for the minimum). The graph also shows the typical phenomenon of ...
Earth has an albedo of about 0.306 and a solar irradiance (L / 4 π D 2) of 1361 W m −2 at its mean orbital radius of 1.5×10 8 km. The calculation with ε=1 and remaining physical constants then gives an Earth effective temperature of 254 K (−19 °C). [11] The actual temperature of Earth's surface is an average 288 K (15 °C) as of 2020. [12]
A schematic representation of a planet's radiation balance with its parent star and the rest of space. Thermal radiation absorbed and emitted by the idealized atmosphere can raise the equilibrium surface temperature. The temperatures of a planet's surface and atmosphere are governed by a delicate balancing of their energy flows.
[9] [10] Although the reality of Earth's atmospheric temperature profile deviates from the many-layered model due to these inversions, the model is relatively accurate within Earth's troposphere. The skin temperature is a close approximation for the temperature of the tropopause on Earth. [4] An equilibrium temperature of 255 K on Earth yields ...
Temperature measurements are also made by GPS radio occultation. [31] This technique measures the refraction of the radio waves transmitted by GPS satellites as they propagate in the Earth's atmosphere, thus allowing vertical temperature and moisture profiles to be measured.
For measuring room temperature emissivities, the detectors must absorb thermal radiation completely at infrared wavelengths near 10×10 −6 metre. [15] Visible light has a wavelength range of about 0.4–0.7×10 −6 metre from violet to deep red. Emissivity measurements for many surfaces are compiled in many handbooks and texts.