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In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution, reverse chain rule or change of variables, [1] is a method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for differentiation , and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards."
Substitution reactions in organic chemistry are classified either as electrophilic or nucleophilic depending upon the reagent involved, whether a reactive intermediate involved in the reaction is a carbocation, a carbanion or a free radical, and whether the substrate is aliphatic or aromatic. Detailed understanding of a reaction type helps to ...
In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of elementary reactions by which overall chemical reaction occurs. [1]A chemical mechanism is a theoretical conjecture that tries to describe in detail what takes place at each stage of an overall chemical reaction.
The driving force for the actual migration of a substituent in step two of the rearrangement is the formation of a more stable intermediate. For instance a tertiary carbocation is more stable than a secondary carbocation and therefore the S N 1 reaction of neopentyl bromide with ethanol yields tert-pentyl ethyl ether.
In the second step, all the aqua ligands are lost and a linear, two-coordinate product [H 3 N–Ag–NH 3] + is formed. Examination of the thermodynamic data [ 25 ] shows that the difference in entropy change is the main contributor to the difference in stability constants for the two complexation reactions.
Associative substitution describes a pathway by which compounds interchange ligands. The terminology is typically applied to organometallic and coordination complexes, but resembles the Sn2 mechanism in organic chemistry. The opposite pathway is dissociative substitution, being analogous to the Sn1 pathway. Intermediate pathways exist between ...
Another example is the unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (S N 1) reaction in organic chemistry, where it is the first, rate-determining step that is unimolecular. A specific case is the basic hydrolysis of tert-butyl bromide ( t-C
Organocopper reagents are now commonly used in organic synthesis as mild, selective nucleophiles for substitution and conjugate addition reactions. [ 1 ] Since the discovery that copper(I) halides catalyze the conjugate addition of Grignard reagents in 1941, [ 2 ] organocopper reagents have emerged as weakly basic, nucleophilic reagents for ...