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In laminar flow, friction loss arises from the transfer of momentum from the fluid in the center of the flow to the pipe wall via the viscosity of the fluid; no vortices are present in the flow. Note that the friction loss is insensitive to the pipe roughness height ε: the flow velocity in the neighborhood of the pipe wall is zero.
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4-point bend loading = [3] for four-point bending test where the loading span is 1/2 of the support span (rectangular cross section) σ f = F L b d 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}={\frac {FL}{bd^{2}}}} [ 4 ] for four-point bending test where the loading span is 1/3 of the support span (rectangular cross section)
The flexural strength is stress at failure in bending. It is equal to or slightly larger than the failure stress in tension. Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, or bend strength, or transverse rupture strength is a material property, defined as the stress in a material just before it yields in a flexure test. [1]
In a three-point bend test, a fatigue crack is created at the tip of the notch by cyclic loading. The length of the crack is measured. The specimen is then loaded monotonically. A plot of the load versus the crack opening displacement is used to determine the load at which the crack starts growing.
ΔE is the fluid's mechanical energy loss, ξ is an empirical loss coefficient, which is dimensionless and has a value between zero and one, 0 ≤ ξ ≤ 1, ρ is the fluid density, v 1 and v 2 are the mean flow velocities before and after the expansion. In case of an abrupt and wide expansion, the loss coefficient is equal to one. [1]
Minor losses in pipe flow are a major part in calculating the flow, pressure, or energy reduction in piping systems. Liquid moving through pipes carries momentum and energy due to the forces acting upon it such as pressure and gravity.
In solid mechanics, pure bending (also known as the theory of simple bending) is a condition of stress where a bending moment is applied to a beam without the simultaneous presence of axial, shear, or torsional forces.