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This article describes the mathematics of the Standard Model of particle physics, a gauge quantum field theory containing the internal symmetries of the unitary product group SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1). The theory is commonly viewed as describing the fundamental set of particles – the leptons , quarks , gauge bosons and the Higgs boson .
The fraction of the total energy density of our (flat or almost flat) universe that is dark energy, , is estimated to be 0.669 ± 0.038 based on the 2018 Dark Energy Survey results using Type Ia supernovae [8] or 0.6847 ± 0.0073 based on the 2018 release of Planck satellite data, or more than 68.3 % (2018 estimate) of the mass–energy density ...
Quarks are the fundamental constituents of hadrons and interact via the strong force.Quarks are the only known carriers of fractional charge, but because they combine in groups of three quarks (baryons) or in pairs of one quark and one antiquark (mesons), only integer charge is observed in nature.
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is a proposed form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales. Its primary effect is to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe. Assuming that the lambda-CDM model of cosmology is correct, [1] dark energy dominates the universe, contributing 68% of the total energy in the ...
A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). As a first approximation, the nucleus can be treated as composed of non-interacting proton and neutron gases. The three-dimensional isotropic and non-relativistic uniform Fermi gas case is known as the Fermi sphere.
Schematic Bose–Einstein condensation versus temperature of the energy diagram [clarify] In condensed matter physics, a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 °C or −459.67 °F or 0 K).
Scale factor (cosmology) The expansion of the universe is parametrized by a dimensionless scale factor . Also known as the cosmic scale factor or sometimes the Robertson–Walker scale factor, [ 1 ] this is a key parameter of the Friedmann equations. In the early stages of the Big Bang, most of the energy was in the form of radiation, and that ...
Coulomb energy, the potential energy from each pair of protons. As this is a repelling force, the binding energy is reduced. Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli energy), which accounts for the Pauli exclusion principle. Unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower ...