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Example of Greek IDN with domain name in non-Latin alphabet: ουτοπία.δπθ.gr (Punycode is xn--kxae4bafwg.xn--pxaix.gr)An internationalized domain name (IDN) is an Internet domain name that contains at least one label displayed in software applications, in whole or in part, in non-Latin script or alphabet [a] or in the Latin alphabet-based characters with diacritics or ligatures.
An example of an IDN homograph attack; the Latin letters "e" and "a" are replaced with the Cyrillic letters "е" and "а".The internationalized domain name (IDN) homoglyph attack (often written as homograph attack) is a method used by malicious parties to deceive computer users about what remote system they are communicating with, by exploiting the fact that many different characters look ...
In contrast, a character entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined (built into the markup language) or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition (DTD). The format is the same as for any entity reference: &name;
IDN homograph attack – Visually similar letters in domain names; Duplicate characters in Unicode – Unicode characters that have been encoded twice; Vehicle registration plates of Bosnia and Herzegovina use only numbers and letters that look the same in the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets.
Punycode is a representation of Unicode with the limited ASCII character subset used for Internet hostnames.Using Punycode, host names containing Unicode characters are transcoded to a subset of ASCII consisting of letters, digits, and hyphens, which is called the letter–digit–hyphen (LDH) subset.
In HTML and XML, a numeric character reference refers to a character by its Universal Character Set/Unicode code point, and uses the format: &#xhhhh;. or &#nnnn; where the x must be lowercase in XML documents, hhhh is the code point in hexadecimal form, and nnnn is the code point in decimal form.
International email arises from the combined provision of internationalized domain names (IDN) [1] and email address internationalization (EAI). [2] The result is email that contains international characters (characters which do not exist in the ASCII character set), encoded as UTF-8, in the email header and in supporting mail transfer protocols.
Punycode, another encoding form, enables the encoding of Unicode strings into the limited character set supported by the ASCII-based Domain Name System (DNS). The encoding is used as part of IDNA, which is a system enabling the use of Internationalized Domain Names in all scripts that are supported by