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While knowledge was being accumulated regarding the biology of phages and how to use phage cocktails correctly, early uses of phage therapy were often unreliable. [29] Since the early 20th century, research into the development of viable therapeutic antibiotics had also been underway, and by 1942, the antibiotic penicillin G had been ...
The isolation of phages by d'Herelle works like this: Nutritional medium is infected with bacteria; the medium turns opaque. The bacteria are infected with phages and die, producing new phages; the medium clears. The medium is filtered through porcelain filter, holding back bacteria and larger objects; only the smaller phages pass through.
George Eliava pioneered the use of phages in treating bacterial infections. Phages were discovered to be antibacterial agents and were used in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia (pioneered there by Giorgi Eliava with help from the co-discoverer of bacteriophages, Félix d'Hérelle) during the 1920s and 1930s for treating bacterial infections.
Many of the leaders of the emerging field of molecular biology were alumni of the phage course, which continued to be taught through the 1950s and 1960s. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] In 1995, Millard Susman published a retrospective article on the phage course as it was given over the years (1945 – 1970) both at Cold Spring Harbor (New York) and at the ...
German-occupied Europe (or Nazi-occupied Europe) refers to the sovereign countries of Europe which were wholly or partly militarily occupied and civil-occupied, including puppet governments, by the military forces and the government of Nazi Germany at various times between 1939 and 1945, during World War II, administered by the Nazi regime under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler.
The ensuing Black Death may have killed up to 25 million total, including China and roughly a third of the population of Europe and in the next decades, changing the course of Asian and European history. Biologicals were extensively used in many parts of Africa from the sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or ...
Starvation and its associated illnesses killed about 20 million people in Europe and Asia during World War II, approximately the same as the number of soldiers killed in battle. [1] Most of the deaths from starvation in Europe were in the Soviet Union and Poland, countries invaded by Germany and occupied in whole or part during the war.
But by the time the summer arrived, the Normandy Invasion had occurred and Allied troops were advancing across northern Europe, causing Operation Vegetarian to be abandoned. [4] The five million cakes made to be disseminated in Germany were eventually destroyed in an incinerator shortly after the end of World War II. [10]