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Particulate matter (PM), particularly PM2.5, was found to be harmful to aquatic invertebrates. [41] These aquatic invertebrates include fish, crustaceans, and Mollusca. In a study by Han et al, the effects of PM<2.5 micrometers on life history traits and oxidative stress were observed in Tigriopus japonicus.
The earliest devices used to measure pollution include rain gauges (in studies of acid rain), Ringelmann charts for measuring smoke, and simple soot and dust collectors known as deposit gauges. [1] Modern air pollution measurement is largely automated and carried out using many different devices and techniques.
Economic analysis also looks at the economics of climate change mitigation and the cost of climate adaptation. Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimize the costs. [5] Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs. [6]
The national AQHI is based on three-hour average concentrations of ground-level ozone (O 3), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). O 3 and NO 2 are measured in parts per billion (ppb) while PM2.5 is measured in micrograms per cubic metre (μg/m 3).
The Convention has been extended by eight protocols that identify specific measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emissions of air pollutants: Protocol on Long-Term Financing of the Cooperative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP) (1984)
The guidelines stipulate that PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m 3 annual mean, or 15 μg/m 3 24-hour mean; and that PM 10 should not exceed 15 μg/m 3 annual mean, or 45 μg/m 3 24-hour mean. [2] For ozone (O 3 ), the guidelines suggest values no higher than 100 μg/m 3 for an 8-hour mean and 60 μg/m 3 peak season mean. [ 2 ]
The World Health Organization's recommended limit is 5 micrograms per cubic meter, although there are also various national guideline values, which are often much higher. Air pollution is among the biggest health problems of modern industrial society and is responsible for more than 10 percent of all deaths worldwide (nearly 4.5 million ...
PM 2.5 AQI of US monitors, calculated utilizing NowCast, courtesy US EPA PM2.5 AQI map, calculated utilizing NowCast, courtesy US EPA. The PM (particulate matter) NowCast is a weighted average of hourly air monitoring data used by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for real-time reporting of the Air Quality Index (AQI) for PM (PM 10 - particles less than 10 micrometers ...