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In statistics, propagation of uncertainty (or propagation of error) is the effect of variables' uncertainties (or errors, more specifically random errors) ...
Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric delay, but occurring in the troposphere. This effect is more localized than ionospheric effects, changes more quickly and is not frequency dependent. These traits make precise measurement and compensation of humidity errors more difficult than ionospheric effects. [2]
The weighted arithmetic mean is similar to an ordinary arithmetic mean (the most common type of average), except that instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others.
These deviations are called residuals when the calculations are performed over the data sample that was used for estimation (and are therefore always in reference to an estimate) and are called errors (or prediction errors) when computed out-of-sample (aka on the full set, referencing a true value rather than an estimate). The RMSD serves to ...
The ideal signal amplitude reference can either be the maximum ideal signal amplitude of the constellation, or it can be the root mean square (RMS) average amplitude of all possible ideal signal amplitude values in the constellation. For many common constellations including BPSK, QPSK, and 8PSK, these two methods for finding the reference give ...
The averaging method yields an autonomous dynamical system ˙ = (,,) =: ¯ which approximates the solution curves of ˙ inside a connected and compact region of the phase space and over time of /. Under the validity of this averaging technique, the asymptotic behavior of the original system is captured by the dynamical equation for y ...
A more elegant way of writing the so-called "propagation of error" variance equation is to use matrices. [12] First define a vector of partial derivatives, as was used in Eq(8) above:
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