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Furthermore, there is also a distinction of partisan voting behavior relative to a voter's age and education. Studies show that individuals with more educational attainment are more likely to vote. [18] Those over fifty years old and those without a high school diploma are more likely to vote based on partisan loyalty.
The most common example of a spatial model is a political spectrum or compass, such as the traditional left-right axis, [2] but issue spaces can be more complex. For example, a study of German voters found at least four dimensions were required to adequately represent all political parties.
A third problem that can complicate issue voting is if there are multiple issues that are equally salient to the voter. [48] A candidate may have a similar position to a given voter on one issue, but may take a considerably different stance on another. [49] [50] An example of this occurred in the 2008 US presidential election.
Ethograms are used extensively in the study of welfare science. Ethograms can be used to detect the occurrence or prevalence of abnormal behaviours (e.g. stereotypies, [5] [6] feather pecking, [7] tail-biting [8]), normal behaviours (e.g. comfort behaviours), departures from the ethogram of ancestral species [9] and the behaviour of captive animals upon release into a natural environment.
For example, from the viewpoint of rational choice theory, the expected gains of voting depend on (1) the benefit to the voter if their candidate wins and (2) the probability that one's vote will determine the election's outcome. [38] Even in a tight election the probability that one's vote decides the outcome is estimated at effectively zero. [40]
The efficient voter rule indicates that voting on a collective action or policy change should lead to an efficient outcome. [4] Possible applications include policy decisions about clean energy, noise pollution, over-fishing, mandatory immunizations, smoking bans, zoning, septic systems, and fuel economy standards.
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The altruism theory of voting is a model of voter behavior which states that if citizens in a democracy have "social" preferences for the welfare of others, the extremely low probability of a single vote determining an election will be outweighed by the large cumulative benefits society will receive from the voter's preferred policy being enacted, such that it is rational for an “altruistic ...