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Estrogen is associated with edema, including facial and abdominal swelling. Melanin. Estrogen is known to cause darkening of skin, especially in the face and areolae. [38] Pale skinned women will develop browner and yellower skin during pregnancy, as a result of the increase of estrogen, known as the "mask of pregnancy". [39]
Estrogen has been found to increase the secretion of oxytocin and to increase the expression of its receptor, the oxytocin receptor, in the brain. [34] In women, a single dose of estradiol has been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.
LH induces androgen synthesis by thecal cells, stimulates proliferation, differentiation, and secretion of follicular thecal cells and increases LH receptor expression on granulosa cells. [4] Throughout the entire follicular phase, rising estrogen levels in the blood stimulates growth of the endometrium and myometrium of the uterus. [6]
Estrogen and progesterone cause the secretion of high levels of prolactin from the anterior pituitary, [32] [33] which reach levels as high as 20 times greater than normal menstrual cycle levels. [31] IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels also increase dramatically during pregnancy, due to secretion of placental growth hormone (PGH). [34]
The corpus luteum is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids (including lutein) from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen that inhibits further release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
Uterine angiogenesis is upregulated by human chorionic gonadotropin and progesterone and downregulated by estrogen. The balance of influences of progesterone and estrogen determine the state of angiogenesis in the uterus during early pregnancy. [9] [10]
Ovulation inhibition is an antigonadotropic effect and is mediated by inhibition of the secretion of the gonadotropins, LH and FSH, from the pituitary gland. In assisted reproductive technology including in vitro fertilization , cycles where a transvaginal oocyte retrieval is planned generally necessitates ovulation suppression, because it is ...
Hypoestrogenism, or estrogen deficiency, refers to a lower than normal level of estrogen. It is an umbrella term used to describe estrogen deficiency in various conditions. Estrogen deficiency is also associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, [1] and has been linked to diseases like urinary tract infections [2] and osteoporosis.
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