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An example of a chloride-bicarbonate antiporter is the chloride anion exchanger, also known as down-regulated in adenoma (protein DRA). It is found in the intestinal mucosa , especially in the columnar epithelium and goblet cells of the apical surface of the membrane, where it carries out the function of chloride and bicarbonate exchange. [ 39 ]
For many of the loci, trinucleotide expansion is harmless, [citation needed] but in some areas expansion has detrimental effects that cause symptoms. When the trinucleotide repeat is present within the protein-coding region, the repeat expansion leads to production of a mutant protein with gain of function .
The glucose transporter (GLUTs) is a type of uniporter responsible for the facilitated diffusion of glucose molecules across cell membranes. [9] Glucose is a vital energy source for most living cells, however, due to its large size, it cannot freely move through the cell membrane. [16]
Clonal expansion and monoclonal versus polyclonal proliferation. A clone is a group of identical cells that share a common ancestry, meaning they are derived from the same cell. [1] Clonality implies the state of a cell or a substance being derived from one source or the other.
A trinucleotide repeat expansion, also known as a triplet repeat expansion, is the DNA mutation responsible for causing any type of disorder categorized as a trinucleotide repeat disorder. These are labelled in dynamical genetics as dynamic mutations . [ 1 ]
Notch 1, for example, has 36 of these repeats. Each EGF-like repeat is composed of approximately 40 amino acids, and its structure is defined largely by six conserved cysteine residues that form three conserved disulfide bonds. Each EGF-like repeat can be modified by O-linked glycans at specific sites. [30]
Intergenic regions may contain a number of functional DNA sequences such as promoters and regulatory elements, enhancers, spacers, and (in eukaryotes) centromeres. [2] They may also contain origins of replication, scaffold attachment regions, and transposons and viruses.
An example for a contact-dependent mechanism is the expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), through which MSCs can suppress T cells. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The secreted substances MSCs release an inflammatory response is stimulated include for example nitric oxide (NO), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), programmed ...