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[1]: 117 The formula above is known as the Langevin paramagnetic equation. Pierre Curie found an approximation to this law that applies to the relatively high temperatures and low magnetic fields used in his experiments. As temperature increases and magnetic field decreases, the argument of the hyperbolic tangent decreases.
Schematic of the Birkeland or Field-Aligned Currents and the ionospheric current systems they connect to, Pedersen and Hall currents. [1]A Birkeland current (also known as field-aligned current, FAC) is a set of electrical currents that flow along geomagnetic field lines connecting the Earth's magnetosphere to the Earth's high latitude ionosphere.
The ring current system consists of a band, at a distance of 3 to 8 R E, [1] which lies in the equatorial plane and circulates clockwise around the Earth (when viewed from the north). The particles of this region produce a magnetic field in opposition to the Earth's magnetic field and so an Earthly observer would observe a decrease in the ...
These equations are inhomogeneous versions of the wave equation, with the terms on the right side of the equation serving as the source functions for the wave. As with any wave equation, these equations lead to two types of solution: advanced potentials (which are related to the configuration of the sources at future points in time), and ...
Continuous charge distribution. The volume charge density ρ is the amount of charge per unit volume (cube), surface charge density σ is amount per unit surface area (circle) with outward unit normal nĚ‚, d is the dipole moment between two point charges, the volume density of these is the polarization density P.
There are two London equations when expressed in terms of measurable fields: =, =. Here is the (superconducting) current density, E and B are respectively the electric and magnetic fields within the superconductor, is the charge of an electron or proton, is electron mass, and is a phenomenological constant loosely associated with a number density of superconducting carriers.
This threshold temperature below which a material is ferromagnetic is called the Curie temperature and is different for each material. The Curie–Weiss law describes the changes in a material's magnetic susceptibility, , near its Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility is the ratio between the material's magnetization and the applied ...
A transport equation, usually of heat (sometimes of light element concentration): = + where T is temperature, = / is the thermal diffusivity with k thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and density, and is an optional heat source. Often the pressure is the dynamic pressure, with the hydrostatic pressure and centripetal potential removed.