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Ragep, F. Jamil (1994). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan al-Safa, al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina". Isis. 85 (3). University of Chicago Press: 504–505. doi:10.1086/356912. ISSN 0021-1753. Clarke, Peter B. (1980). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines".
The Origins of The Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book, edited by Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, 1998, hardcover, 420 pages, ISBN 1-57392-198-X; Ibn Warraq. The Quest for the Historical Muhammad, edited and translated by Ibn Warraq, Prometheus Books, 2000, hardcover, 554 pages, ISBN 1-57392-787-2; Ibn Warraq.
Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." [2] It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library. [3] Most of the items in its collection are the full texts of books or individual stories in the ...
Quranic inerrancy is a doctrine central to the Muslim faith that the Quran is the infallible and inerrant word of God as revealed to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel in the 7th century CE. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ better source needed ]
The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin. [25] Under the caliph Al-Ma'mun, an astronomical program was instituted in Baghdad and Damascus with the stated intention of verifying Ptolemy's observations by comparing the predictions made from his models with new observations. The findings were ...
Islamic law of business organizations (corporations) [21] The concept of riba and Islamic banking [22] Prohibition of riba elaborated [23] Murabaha and credit sale. [24] The distinguished jurist's primer. (a translation of Bidayat al-Mujtahid by Averroes) [25] The book of revenue (a translation of Kitab al-Amwal by Abu Ubayd ibn Salam) [26] The ...
The Mihna (Arabic: محنة خلق القرآن, romanized: miḥna khalaq al-qurʾān, lit. 'ordeal of Quranic createdness') (also known as the first Muslim inquisition) was a period of religious persecution instituted by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun in 833 AD in which religious scholars were punished, imprisoned, or even killed [citation needed] unless they conformed to Muʿtazila doctrine.
For example, Avicenna gives a philosophical justification for the Islamic doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God) by showing the uniqueness and simplicity of the necessary existent. [15] He argues that the necessary existent must be unique, using a proof by contradiction , or reductio , showing that a contradiction would follow if one supposes that ...