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2. Exponentiation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_exponents

   This definition of exponentiation with negative exponents is the only one that allows extending the identity + = to negative exponents (consider the case =). The same definition applies to invertible elements in a multiplicative monoid , that is, an algebraic structure , with an associative multiplication and a multiplicative identity denoted 1 ...

3. Exponentiation by squaring - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring

   The method is based on the observation that, for any integer >, one has: = {() /, /,. If the exponent n is zero then the answer is 1. If the exponent is negative then we can reuse the previous formula by rewriting the value using a positive exponent.

4. Modular exponentiation - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation

   Modular exponentiation is the remainder when an integer b (the base) is raised to the power e (the exponent), and divided by a positive integer m (the modulus); that is, c = b e mod m. From the definition of division, it follows that 0 ≤ c < m. For example, given b = 5, e = 3 and m = 13, dividing 5 3 = 125 by 13 leaves a remainder of c = 8.

5. Reciprocal rule - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_rule

   In calculus, the reciprocal rule gives the derivative of the reciprocal of a function f in terms of the derivative of f.The reciprocal rule can be used to show that the power rule holds for negative exponents if it has already been established for positive exponents.

6. Series expansion - Wikipedia

   en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_expansion

   A Laurent series is a generalization of the Taylor series, allowing terms with negative exponents; it takes the form = and converges in an annulus. [6] In particular, a Laurent series can be used to examine the behavior of a complex function near a singularity by considering the series expansion on an annulus centered at the singularity.

7. Google should be forced to bargain with contractor's union ...

   www.aol.com/news/google-forced-bargain...

   By Daniel Wiessner (Reuters) - Alphabet's Google is facing a second complaint from a U.S. labor board claiming that it is the employer of contract workers and must bargain with their union, the ...