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There are three basic types of secondary messenger molecules: [citation needed] Hydrophobic molecules: water-insoluble molecules such as diacylglycerol, and phosphatidylinositols, which are membrane-associated and diffuse from the plasma membrane into the intermembrane space where they can reach and regulate membrane-associated effector proteins.
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Cyclic di-AMP (also called c-di-AMP and c-di-adenosine monophosphate) is a second messenger used in signal transduction in bacteria and archaea. [1] [2] [3] It is present in many Gram-positive bacteria, some Gram-negative species, and archaea of the phylum Euryarchaeota.
This molecule, referred to as 2′3′-cGAMP (cyclic [G(2’,5’)pA(3’,5’)p]), functions as an endogenous second messenger inducing STING-dependent type I interferon response. [1] [3] cGAMP has also been shown to be an effective adjuvant that boosts the production of antigen-specific antibodies and T cell responses in mice.
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They are also found in some other bacterial lineages. There is significant overlap between species that use cyclic di-GMP-I and cyclic di-GMP-II riboswitches, as both riboswitch classes are common in Clostridia. In Clostridioides difficile (bacteria) strains, a cyclic di-GMP-II riboswitch is found adjacent to a group I catalytic intron.
It acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, as a donor of ADP-ribose moieties in ADP-ribosylation reactions, as a precursor of the second messenger molecule cyclic ADP-ribose, as well as acting as a substrate for bacterial DNA ligases and a group of enzymes called sirtuins that use NAD + to remove acetyl groups from proteins.
An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein chain (polypeptide). This is the case for most of the eukaryotic mRNAs. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries several open reading frames (ORFs), each of which is translated into a polypeptide.