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An LED begins to emit light when more than 2 or 3 volts is applied in the forward direction. The reverse bias region uses a different vertical scale from the forward bias region to show that the leakage current is nearly constant with voltage until breakdown occurs. In forward bias, the current starts small but increases exponentially with voltage.
Activation is the process of opening the activation gate, which occurs in response to the voltage inside the cell membrane (the membrane potential) becoming more positive with respect to the outside of the cell (depolarization), and 'deactivation' is the opposite process of the activation gate closing in response to the inside of the membrane ...
The first LED was created by Soviet inventor Oleg Losev [9] in 1927, but electroluminescence was already known for 20 years, and relied on a diode made of silicon carbide. Commercially viable LEDs only became available after Texas Instruments engineers patented efficient near-infrared emission from a diode based on GaAs in 1962.
Paracrine signaling occurs between nearby cells. Endocrine interaction occurs between distant cells, with the chemical signal usually carried by the blood. [4] Receptors are complex proteins or tightly bound multimer of proteins, located in the plasma membrane or within the interior of the cell such as in the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus ...
When a cell is at rest, the cell maintains what is known as a resting potential. The resting potential generated by nearly all cells results in the interior of the cell having a negative charge compared to the exterior of the cell. To maintain this electrical imbalance, ions are transported across the cell's plasma membrane. [3]
An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical cell that utilizes an external source of electrical energy to force a chemical reaction that would otherwise not occur. [ 1 ] : 64, 89 [ 2 ] : GL7 The external energy source is a voltage applied between the cell's two electrodes ; an anode (positively charged electrode) and a cathode (negatively ...
Bacteriorhodopsin is a light-driven H + ion transporter found in some haloarchaea, most notably Halobacterium salinarum (formerly known as syn. H. halobium). The proton-motive force generated by the protein is used by ATP synthase to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). By expressing bacteriorhodopsin, the archaea cells are able to synthesise ...
Where the particle consists of nested spheres – the most common example of which is the approximation of a spherical cell composed of an inner part (the cytoplasm) surrounded by an outer layer (the cell membrane) – then this can be represented by nested expressions for the shells and the way in which they interact, allowing the properties ...