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Instruments of monetary policy have included short-term interest rates and bank reserves through the monetary base. [1]With the creation of the Bank of England in 1694, which acquired the responsibility to print notes and back them with gold, the idea of monetary policy as independent of executive action began to be established. [2]
This model is further advanced in higher levels of undergraduate studies. David Romer proposed in 2000 that the LM curve be replaced in the IS–LM model. [1] Instead, Romer suggested that although the Federal Reserve uses open market operations to impact the federal funds rate, they are not targeting money supply, but rather the interest rate.
Other policy tools include communication strategies like forward guidance and in some countries the setting of reserve requirements. Monetary policy is often referred to as being either expansionary (stimulating economic activity and consequently employment and inflation) or contractionary (dampening economic activity, hence decreasing ...
An increase in the interest rate, from a leftward shift of the MP curve or higher level of inflation, produces lower total output, Q. The IS curve displays a negative relationship between the real interest rate, located on the vertical axis, and total output, on the horizontal axis.
Monetary policy works by stimulating or suppressing the overall demand for goods and services in the economy, which will tend to increase respectively diminish employment and inflation. The Federal Reserve's primary means to this end is adjusting the target for the Federal funds rate (FFR) suitably. [4]
Quantitative easing is a novel form of monetary policy that came into wide application after the 2007–2008 financial crisis. [2] [3] It is used to mitigate an economic recession when inflation is very low or negative, making standard monetary policy ineffective.
An expansionary monetary policy resulting in an incipient outward shift of the LM curve would make capital flow out of the economy. The central bank under a fixed exchange rate system would have to instantaneously intervene by selling foreign money in exchange for domestic money to maintain the exchange rate.
The monetary policy of the Federal Reserve changed throughout the 20th century. The period between the 1960s and the 1970s is evaluated by Taylor and others as a period of poor monetary policy; the later years typically characterized as stagflation. The inflation rate was high and increasing, while interest rates were kept low. [6]