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Bullae can become extensive and combine to form giant bullae. These can be large enough to take up a third of a hemithorax, compress the lung parenchyma, and cause displacement. The emphysema is now termed giant bullous emphysema, more commonly called vanishing lung syndrome due to the compressed parenchyma. [28]
Restrictive lung disease is characterized by reduced lung volumes, and therefore reduced lung compliance, either due to an intrinsic reason, for example a change in the lung parenchyma, or due to an extrinsic reason, for example diseases of the chest wall, pleura, or respiratory muscles. [3]
Low magnification micrograph of pneumatosis intestinalis in bowel wall.. Pneumoperitoneum (or peritoneal emphysema), air or gas in the abdominal cavity.The most common cause is a perforated abdominal viscus, generally a perforated peptic ulcer, although any part of the bowel may perforate from a benign ulcer, tumor or abdominal trauma.
Pulmonary fibrosis is perpetuated by aberrant wound healing, rather than chronic inflammation. [15] It is the main cause of restrictive lung disease that is intrinsic to the lung parenchyma. In contrast, quadriplegia [16] and kyphosis [17] are examples of causes of restrictive lung disease that do not necessarily involve pulmonary fibrosis.
High-resolution CT image showing ground-glass opacities in the periphery of both lungs in a patient with COVID-19 (red arrows). The adjacent normal lung tissue with lower attenuation appears as darker areas. Ground-glass opacity (GGO) is a finding seen on chest x-ray (radiograph) or computed tomography (CT) imaging of the lungs.
Chest trauma, a major cause of subcutaneous emphysema, can cause air to enter the skin of the chest wall from the neck or lung. [9] When the pleural membranes are punctured, as occurs in penetrating trauma of the chest, air may travel from the lung to the muscles and subcutaneous tissue of the chest wall. [9]
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