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Joseph Lister. Portrait of Joseph Lister. Surgical techniques advanced in the 19th century, but the chances of a patient dying from post-operative infection was 50%. [41] Prior to the discovery of the germ theory of disease, surgeons did not clean their surgical instruments or the operating table between patients.
1831 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel died of a gastrointestinal disease during a cholera outbreak in Berlin. 1832 - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe died of a heart attack in Weimar. [6] 1837 – Giacomo Leopardi died in Naples during a cholera epidemic, maybe by pulmonary edema. 1860 – Arthur Schopenhauer died of pulmonary-respiratory failure
Rather, following Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason, Hegel's usage harks back to the Greek eidos, Plato's concept of form that is fully existent and universal: [138] "Hegel's Idee (like Plato's idea) is the product of an attempt to fuse ontology, epistemology, evaluation, etc., into a single set of concepts." [139]
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Cholera ravaged northern Africa in 1865 and southeastward to Zanzibar, killing 70,000 in 1869–70. [35] Cholera claimed 90,000 lives in Russia in 1866. [36] The epidemic of cholera that spread with the Austro-Prussian War (1866) is estimated to have killed 165,000 people in the Austrian Empire. [37] In 1867, 113,000 died from cholera in Italy.
The third cholera pandemic (1846–1860) was the third major outbreak of cholera originating in India in the 19th century that reached far beyond its borders, which researchers at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) believe may have started as early as 1837 and lasted until 1863. [1]
Deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 in the first three pandemics of the nineteenth century, are estimated to have exceeded 15 million people. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917, during the next three pandemics. Cholera deaths in the Russian Empire during a similar time period exceeded 2 million. [5]
The disease continued westward in 1892, across the Punjab (with 75,000 cholera deaths), and raged on through Afghanistan and claimed 60,000 lives in Persia, [17] [18] and then reached Imperial Russia which suffered a staggering morbidity rate, exacerbated by the Russian famine of 1891–1892. [19]