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Negative washback occurs in situations where there may be a mismatch between the stated goals of instruction and the focus of assessment; it may lead to the abandonment of instructional goals in favor of test preparation. [1] The effect of a test on learning and teaching is a concept discussed as early as the 19th century. [1]
Blackboard in Harvard classroom shows students' efforts at placing the ü and acute accent diacritics used in Spanish orthography.. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer: here, the "correct" meaning is in line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability. [3]
Direct negative evidence in language acquisition consists of utterances that indicate whether a construction in a language is ungrammatical. [1] Direct negative evidence differs from indirect negative evidence because it is explicitly presented to a language learner (e.g. a child might be corrected by a parent).
An intergovernmental symposium in 1991 titled "Transparency and Coherence in Language Learning in Europe: Objectives, Evaluation, Certification" held by the Swiss Federal Authorities in the Swiss municipality of Rüschlikon found the need for a common European framework for languages to improve the recognition of language qualifications and help teachers co-operate.
The view that there is "no negative evidence" in the input is held by a number of researchers in the field of language acquisition who assert that if children are to learn language, then they must be able to learn language by solely examining the positive evidence that they do receive from the input since there is not enough negative evidence ...
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. [2] Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly, using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in target language.
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The acquisition–learning hypothesis claims that there is a strict separation between acquisition and learning; Krashen saw acquisition as a purely subconscious process and learning as a conscious process, and claimed that improvement in language ability was only dependent upon acquisition and never on learning.
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