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  2. Great-circle distance - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great-circle_distance

    A diagram illustrating great-circle distance (drawn in red) between two points on a sphere, P and Q. Two antipodal points, u and v are also shown.. The great-circle distance, orthodromic distance, or spherical distance is the distance between two points on a sphere, measured along the great-circle arc between them.

  3. Approximations of π - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximations_of_π

    [30] [31] In 1719, Thomas de Lagny used a similar identity to calculate 127 digits (of which 112 were correct). In 1789, the Slovene mathematician Jurij Vega improved John Machin's formula to calculate the first 140 digits, of which the first 126 were correct. [32] In 1841, William Rutherford calculated 208 digits, of which the first 152 were ...

  4. Absolute magnitude - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_magnitude

    The more luminous an object, the smaller the numerical value of its absolute magnitude. A difference of 5 magnitudes between the absolute magnitudes of two objects corresponds to a ratio of 100 in their luminosities, and a difference of n magnitudes in absolute magnitude corresponds to a luminosity ratio of 100 n/5.

  5. Mass flux - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_flux

    Mathematically, mass flux is defined as the limit =, where = = is the mass current (flow of mass m per unit time t) and A is the area through which the mass flows.. For mass flux as a vector j m, the surface integral of it over a surface S, followed by an integral over the time duration t 1 to t 2, gives the total amount of mass flowing through the surface in that time (t 2 − t 1): = ^.

  6. Surface-area-to-volume ratio - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio

    Increased surface area can also lead to biological problems. More contact with the environment through the surface of a cell or an organ (relative to its volume) increases loss of water and dissolved substances. High surface area to volume ratios also present problems of temperature control in unfavorable environments. [citation needed]

  7. 15 Self-Employment Tax Deductions You Should Know - AOL

    www.aol.com/15-self-employment-tax-deductions...

    There are dozens of self-employment tax deductions, including advertising, retirement contributions, health insurance, self-employment tax deduction, travel expenses, business insurance, car ...

  8. This Was the Average Social Security Benefit in 1994, and ...

    www.aol.com/average-social-security-benefit-1994...

    Image source: Getty Images. Back in December 1994, the average monthly benefit was just $697.34, adding up to about $8,368 for the year. Fast forward to November 2024, and the average retired ...

  9. Numerical differentiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_differentiation

    The classical finite-difference approximations for numerical differentiation are ill-conditioned. However, if is a holomorphic function, real-valued on the real line, which can be evaluated at points in the complex plane near , then there are stable methods.