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Long short-term memory (LSTM) [1] is a type of recurrent neural network (RNN) aimed at mitigating the vanishing gradient problem [2] commonly encountered by traditional RNNs. Its relative insensitivity to gap length is its advantage over other RNNs, hidden Markov models , and other sequence learning methods.
The input is a sequence of observations, and the outputs are a sequence of labels, which can include blank outputs. The difficulty of training comes from there being many more observations than there are labels. For example, in speech audio there can be multiple time slices which correspond to a single phoneme.
English: A diagram for a one-unit Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM). From bottom to top : input state, hidden state and cell state, output state. Gates are sigmoïds or hyperbolic tangents. Other operators : element-wise plus and multiplication. Weights are not displayed. Inspired from Understanding LSTM, Blog of C. Olah
The input text sequence is first mapped by an embedding layer into a sequence of vectors. Then two parts are run in parallel over it. The forward part is a 2-layered LSTM with 4096 units and 512 dimension projections, and a residual connection from the first to second layer.
English: Structure of a LSTM (Long Short-term Memory) cell. Orange boxes are activation functions (like sigmoid and tanh), yellow circles are pointwise operations. A linear transformation is used when two arrows merge. When one arrow splits, this is a copy operation.
Time Aware LSTM (T-LSTM) is a long short-term memory (LSTM) unit capable of handling irregular time intervals in longitudinal patient records. T-LSTM was developed by researchers from Michigan State University , IBM Research , and Cornell University and was first presented in the Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) conference. [ 1 ]
Gated recurrent units (GRUs) are a gating mechanism in recurrent neural networks, introduced in 2014 by Kyunghyun Cho et al. [1] The GRU is like a long short-term memory (LSTM) with a gating mechanism to input or forget certain features, [2] but lacks a context vector or output gate, resulting in fewer parameters than LSTM. [3]
LLMs are language models with many parameters, and are trained with self-supervised learning on a vast amount of text. This page lists notable large language models. For the training cost column, 1 petaFLOP-day = 1 petaFLOP/sec × 1 day = 8.64E19 FLOP. Also, only the largest model's cost is written.