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Metoprolol is used for a number of conditions, including angina, acute myocardial infarction, high blood pressure, supraventricular tachycardia, ventricular tachycardia, congestive heart failure, and prevention of migraine headaches. [4] It is an adjunct in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. [17]
Kidney ischemia [1] is a disease with a high morbidity and mortality rate. [2] Blood vessels shrink and undergo apoptosis which results in poor blood flow in the kidneys. More complications happen when failure of the kidney functions result in toxicity in various parts of the body which may cause septic shock, hypovolemia, and a need for surgery. [3]
This can lead to a dramatically elevated potassium in conditions of increased cell breakdown as the potassium is released from the cells and cannot be eliminated in the kidney. In chronic kidney disease, hyperkalemia occurs as a result of reduced aldosterone responsiveness and reduced sodium and water delivery in distal tubules. [14]
The AASK trial showed that ACEis are more effective at slowing down the decline of kidney function compared to calcium channel blockers and beta blockers. [16] As such, ACEis should be the drug treatment of choice for patients with chronic kidney disease regardless of race or diabetic status. [7]
For the treatment of primary hypertension (high blood pressure), meta-analyses of studies which mostly used atenolol have shown that although beta blockers are more effective than placebo in preventing stroke and total cardiovascular events, they are not as effective as diuretics, medications inhibiting the renin–angiotensin system (e.g., ACE ...
For high blood pressure it is usually a first-line treatment. It is also used to prevent kidney problems in people with diabetes mellitus. [7] Lisinopril is taken orally (swallowed by mouth). [7] Full effect may take up to four weeks to occur. [7] Common side effects include headache, dizziness, feeling tired, cough, nausea, and rash. [7]
[55] [57] An interaction between PPIs and the metabolism of the platelet inhibitor clopidogrel is known and this drug is also often used in people with cardiac disease. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 22 ] There are associations with an increased risk of stroke, but this appears to be more likely to occur in people who already have an elevated risk.
Figure 1: The chemical structure of dichloroisoprenaline or dichloroisoproterenol (), abbreviated DCI — the first β-blocker to be developed. β adrenergic receptor antagonists (also called beta-blockers or β-blockers) were initially developed in the 1960s, for the treatment of angina pectoris but are now also used for hypertension, congestive heart failure and certain arrhythmias. [1]
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