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The term goniometry derives from two Greek words, γωνία 'angle' and μέτρον 'measure'. [1] The protractor is a commonly used type in the fields of mechanics, engineering, and geometry. The first known description of a goniometer, based on the astrolabe , was by Gemma Frisius in 1538.
There are many grading systems for degeneration of intervertebral discs and facet joints in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, of which the following radiographic systems can be recommended in terms of interobserver reliability: [1] Kellgren grading of cervical disc degeneration; Kellgren grading of cervical facet joint degeneration
Digital Motion X-ray is considered the most accurate method. Upright magnetic resonance imaging, supine magnetic resonance imaging, CT scan, and flexion and extension x-rays may also be used but are far less accurate and have a much higher potential for false negatives. The measurements to diagnose craniocervical instability are:
It is a common measurement of scoliosis. The Cobb angle is also the preferred method of measuring post-traumatic kyphosis in a recent meta-analysis of traumatic spine fracture classifications. [ 5 ]
The first atlas published in 1898 by John Poland consisted of x-ray images of the left hand and wrist. [6] Since then, updated atlases of the left hand and wrist have appeared, [ citation needed ] along with atlases of the foot and ankle, [ 7 ] knee, [ 8 ] and elbow. [ 9 ]
The Scoliosis Research Society's recommendations for bracing include curves progressing to larger than 25°, curves presenting between 30 and 45°, Risser sign 0, 1, or 2 (an X-ray measurement of a pelvic growth area), and less than six months from the onset of menses in girls. [46] A Chêneau brace achieving correction from 56° to 27° Cobb angle
In a study based in Norway, 60% of reported cervical fractures came from falls and 21% from motor-related accidents. [3] According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the group under the highest risk of C2 fractures are elderly people within the age group of 65–84 (39.02%) at risks of falls (61%) or motor accidents (21% ...
Lordosis is historically defined as an abnormal inward curvature of the lumbar spine. [1] [2] However, the terms lordosis and lordotic are also used to refer to the normal inward curvature of the lumbar and cervical regions of the human spine. [3] [4] Similarly, kyphosis historically refers to abnormal convex curvature of the spine