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The 18th and 19th centuries saw significant growth in the establishment of girls' schools and women's colleges, particularly in Europe and North America. Legal reforms began to play a crucial role in shaping women's education, with laws being passed in many countries to make education accessible and compulsory for girls.
Midwifery and obstetrics are different but overlap in medical practice that focuses on pregnancy and labor. Midwifery emphasizes the normality of pregnancy along with the reproductive process. Classical Antiquity saw the beginning of attempts to classify various areas of medical research, and the terms gynecology and obstetrics came into use.
The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
Obstetrics entered a stage of stagnation in the 19th century, which lasted until about the 1880s. [77]: 96–98 The central explanation for the lack of advancement during this time was the rejection of obstetrics by the medical community. [91] The 19th century marked an era of medical reform in Europe and increased regulation over the profession.
An image from John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy, the first modern explanation of atomic theory.. This timeline of chemistry lists important works, discoveries, ideas, inventions, and experiments that significantly changed humanity's understanding of the modern science known as chemistry, defined as the scientific study of the composition of matter and of its interactions.
1874: Julia Lermontova became the first Russian woman to receive a PhD in chemistry. [94] 1875: Hungarian archaeologist Zsófia Torma excavated the site of Turdaș-Luncă in Hunedoara County, today in Romania. The site, which uncovered valuable prehistoric artifacts, became one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Europe. [95]
In the 16th century, university training became a norm for male physicians and increasing worry started to permeate throughout Europe concerning midwives and their training. [10] Men did not rival midwives in childbirth care until midwives' training was questioned. [11] It would take four centuries for men to be the majority in childbirth. [11]
During the Middle Ages in Western Europe, people relied on the medical knowledge of Roman and Greek philosophers, specifically Galen, Hippocrates, and Aristotle. [1] These medical philosophers focused primarily on the health of men, and women's health issues were understudied.