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Continuous charge distribution. The volume charge density ρ is the amount of charge per unit volume (cube), surface charge density σ is amount per unit surface area (circle) with outward unit normal nĚ‚, d is the dipole moment between two point charges, the volume density of these is the polarization density P.
The method of image charges (also known as the method of images and method of mirror charges) is a basic problem-solving tool in electrostatics.The name originates from the replacement of certain elements in the original layout with fictitious charges, which replicates the boundary conditions of the problem (see Dirichlet boundary conditions or Neumann boundary conditions).
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Andre Blondel in 1899 proposed in his paper "Empirical Theory of Synchronous Generators" the two reactions theory that divided the armature magnetomotive force (MMF) into two components: the direct axis component and the quadrature axis component. The direct axis component is aligned with the magnetic axis of the rotor, while the quadrature (or ...
The angle θ and axis unit vector e define a rotation, concisely represented by the rotation vector θe.. In mathematics, the axis–angle representation parameterizes a rotation in a three-dimensional Euclidean space by two quantities: a unit vector e indicating the direction of an axis of rotation, and an angle of rotation θ describing the magnitude and sense (e.g., clockwise) of the ...
Since the integral equals the complex conjugate of the interior multipole moments of the second (peripheral) charge distribution, the energy formula reduces to the simple form = = = For example, this formula may be used to determine the electrostatic interaction energies of the atomic nucleus with its surrounding electronic orbitals.
The formula provides a natural generalization of the Coulomb's law for cases where the source charge is moving: = [′ ′ + ′ (′ ′) + ′] = ′ Here, and are the electric and magnetic fields respectively, is the electric charge, is the vacuum permittivity (electric field constant) and is the speed of light.
In applications one also has to describe how the free currents and charge density behave in terms of E and B possibly coupled to other physical quantities like pressure, and the mass, number density, and velocity of charge-carrying particles. E.g., the original equations given by Maxwell (see History of Maxwell's equations) included Ohm's law ...