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Continuous charge distribution. The volume charge density ρ is the amount of charge per unit volume (cube), surface charge density σ is amount per unit surface area (circle) with outward unit normal nĖ, d is the dipole moment between two point charges, the volume density of these is the polarization density P.
Therefore, the electrostatic field everywhere inside a conductive object is zero, and the electrostatic potential is constant. The electric field, E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } , in units of Newtons per Coulomb or volts per meter, is a vector field that can be defined everywhere, except at the location of point charges (where it diverges to ...
The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10 −15 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At ...
[3] The law states that the magnitude, or absolute value, of the attractive or repulsive electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. [4] Coulomb discovered that bodies with like electrical charges ...
The electrostatic potential could have any constant added to it without affecting the electric field. In electrodynamics, the electric potential has infinitely many degrees of freedom. For any (possibly time-varying or space-varying) scalar field, ð , we can perform the following gauge transformation to find a new set of potentials that ...
When thrust is required, a strong electric field is generated by the application of a high voltage difference between the emitter and the accelerator. Under this condition, the free surface of the liquid metal enters a regime of local instability, due to the combined effects of the electrostatic force and the surface tension.
According to Nikolaides, the electrostatic force engenders a long range capillary attraction. However, this explanation is controversial; other authors have argued that the capillary effect of the electrodipping force is in fact cancelled by the electrostatic pressure on the interface, so the resulting capillary effect would be insignificant.
The strong force overpowers the electrostatic repulsion of protons and quarks in nuclei and hadrons respectively, at their respective scales. While quarks are bound in hadrons by the fundamental strong interaction, which is mediated by gluons, nucleons are bound by an emergent phenomenon termed the residual strong force or nuclear force .