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The drug is taken by mouth. [1] Side effects of armodafinil include headache, nausea, dizziness, and insomnia. [1] Armodafinil acts as a selective atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI) and hence as an indirect dopamine receptor agonist. [1] [5] [11] However, other mechanisms might also be involved in its effects.
Of the more than twenty compounds preclinically tested in Cephalon's three-part drug discovery series, the compound fluorenol was selected as a lead. [26] Fluorenol was found to induce wakefulness to a greater degree than modafinil, despite possessing a lower affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT). [ 26 ]
Modafinil is generally well-tolerated but can have potential risks and side effects. Common adverse effects of modafinil, experienced by less than 10% of users, include headaches, nausea, and reduced appetite. [93] [94] [20] Anxiety, insomnia, dizziness, diarrhea, and rhinitis are also reported in 5% to 10% of users. [20]
The most common side effects associated with methylphenidate (in standard and extended-release formulations) are appetite loss, dry mouth, anxiety/nervousness, nausea, and insomnia. [83] Gastrointestinal adverse effects may include abdominal pain and weight loss .
The adverse effects found in the Phase II trial mainly affected the central nervous system, and appeared to be dose-related. [8] The most common adverse effects were drowsiness, dizziness, tinnitus and vertigo, confusion, and slurred speech. [9] Less common side effects included tremor, memory loss, gait disturbances, and double vision. [10]
Various ototoxic effects are manifested by using antimalarial drugs, with dizziness being one of the most common one. Other effects include vestibular symptoms, hearing loss and tinnitus, which can appear to be both temporary or permanent. [25] Nonetheless, the underlying mechanisms of antimalarial-induced ototoxicity are still poorly understood.
These side effects are serious and some of them are permanent, and many remain a crucial concern for companies and healthcare professionals and substantial efforts are being encouraged to reduce the potential risks for future antipsychotics through more clinical trials and drug development.
Cinnarizine's antagonistic effects of D2 dopamine receptors in the striatum leads to symptoms of depression, tremor, muscle rigidity, tardive dyskinesia, and akathisia. 17 of 100 new parkinsonism cases are linked to administration of either cinnarizine or flunarizine. [5] Drug induced parkinsonism is the second leading cause of parkinsonism. [22]
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