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Biotic interactions can vary in intensity (strength of interaction), and frequency (number of interactions in a given time). [ 31 ] [ 32 ] There are direct interactions when there is a physical contact between individuals or indirect interactions when there is no physical contact, that is, the interaction occurs with a resource, ecological ...
One of the first references to animal cooperation was made by Charles Darwin, who noted it as a potential problem for his theory of natural selection. [48] In most of the 19th century, intellectuals like Thomas Henry Huxley and Peter Kropotkin debated fervently on whether animals cooperate with one another and whether animals displayed ...
Social learning refers to learning that is facilitated by observation of, or interaction with, another animal or its products. [1] Social learning has been observed in a variety of animal taxa , [ 2 ] [ 3 ] such as insects , [ 4 ] fish , [ 5 ] birds , [ 6 ] reptiles , amphibians [ 7 ] and mammals (including primates [ 8 ] ).
A kairomone is a semiochemical released by an organism that mediates interspecific interactions in a way that benefits a different species at the expense of the emitter. [20] Derived from the Greek καιρός , meaning " opportune moment" [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] , it serves as a form of "eavesdropping", enabling the receiver to gain an advantage ...
It is extremely difficult to distinguish between solitary living and group living. Distinctions between the two are relatively artificial. [6] This is because many species of animals who spend a majority of their life alone, at some point in their life, will join a group or engage in social behavior. [7]
Ecological facilitation or probiosis describes species interactions that benefit at least one of the participants and cause harm to neither. [1] Facilitations can be categorized as mutualisms, in which both species benefit, or commensalisms, in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected.
Mutualism can be contrasted with interspecific competition, in which each species experiences reduced fitness, and exploitation, and with parasitism, in which one species benefits at the expense of the other. [2] However, mutualism may evolve from interactions that began with imbalanced benefits, such as parasitism. [3]
Environmental enrichment can improve the overall welfare of animals in captivity and create a habitat similar to what they would experience in their wild environment. It aims to maintain an animal's physical and psychological health by increasing the range or number of species-specific behaviors, increasing positive interaction with the captive environment, preventing or reducing the frequency ...