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While there are different encoding processes for classifying various stimuli, [13] there is no scientific consensus on which encoding system is used to perceive race/ethnicity. [14] Some believe race and ethnicity are encoded by the "living-kinds" scheme, [15] others argue it is by the "social grouping" scheme, [16] and still others assert that ...
Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz is believed to have coined the term "ethnocentrism" in the 19th century, although he may have merely popularized it. Ethnocentrism in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead ...
By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences. [57] Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture. [ 57 ]
An important characteristic of the so-called 'new racism', 'cultural racism' or 'differential racism' is the fact that it essentialises ethnicity and religion, and traps people in supposedly immutable reference categories, as if they are incapable of adapting to a new reality or changing their identity.
In countries where migration, unification, or breakup has occurred relatively recently, the process of ethnogenesis may complicate the determination of both ethnicity and race and is related to personal identity or affiliation. Sometimes the ethnicity of immigrants in their new country is defined as their national origin, and span multiple races.
In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical. [28] [29] The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimination based on ethnicity, national origin, descent, and skin color. [30]
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In 2019, Hochman, a proponent of raciation, pointed out that the concept of racialization is often misidentified as relating to races or what constitutes a race, leading race-skeptic scholars in academia to discourage its use, while it actually pertains to how races are systemically and socially grouped for marginalization.